Kathy and Richard's Experiences in Germany

Here we are in Ravenna. The place where the fall of the western Roman Empire occurred. Not because this is Rome, but because this is were the last Roman, Romulus Augustulus, was emperor. It happened in the year 476 when he was deposed by Odoacer. Odoacer was the leader of several Germanic tribes, referred to by the Romans as barbarians.

Ravenna was Rome's naval base for the Adriatic Sea since the time when Augustus (23 September 63 BC – 19 August AD 14) was emperor. Ravenna was on the coast back then, but silt moved the coast eastward, and now Ravenna is connected to the sea by a canal. The harbor developed into the port district of Classe, and the town of Ravenna developed in the marshy Po river delta just to the north of the harbor. In 402 AD, Emperor Honorius moved the capital of the Western Roman Empire from Milan to Ravenna for security reasons. Ravenna then began building basilicas, mausoleums, residences, everything that a capical needed to express wealth, authority, and power. So, as the rest of the empire was decaying, Ravenna was growing.

Ravenna has two patron saints: one is St. Apollinaris and the other is St.Vitalis. St. Apollinaris is believed to have been the first bishop of Ravenna, where he was arrested, tortured, and killed during the first-century persecution of Christians. St. Vitalis is believed to have been buried under stones in a pit during second-century persecution. Both figures are legendary, but both have important buildings named after them. Sant' Apollinare Nuovo and Sant' Apollinare in Classe and San Vitale have some of the most beautiful mosaics from the time period called Late Antiquity.

In the Piazza del Popolo are statues of Sant' Apollinare and San Vitale, each on a column.

Piazza del Popolo

Statue of St. Apollinaris, added in 1441,
when the Venetians took power over Ravenna

Statue of St. Vitalis, added in 1509,
when Pope Julius II took possession of
the city after the defeat of the Venetians.

Monogram of Theodoric the Great
(upper left-hand corner)

A couple of real people also left their marks on Ravenna: Odoacer, Theodoric the Great,and Justinian

St. Apollinaris

The traditional story of his life states that he accompanied St Peter from Antioch to Rome, was appointed by him to be the first bishop of Ravenna. After various persecutions and exiles, he was martyred in the reign of the Emperor Vespasian, ca. 79 AD. This story is not regarded as historically reliable, and his feast was removed from the general calendar in 1969; in the most recent revision of the Missal, however, he was put back, but on July 20th, since his traditional feast day is now occupied by St Bridget of Sweden, who died on this day in 1373.

Galla Placidia

The sister of one Roman emperor and mother of another. Namesake of Mausoleum of Galla Placidia.

Sister of Honorius, who moved the capital of the West Roman Empire from Milan to Ravenna. She was kidnapped by the Visigoths, and married King Athaulf, king of the Visigoths. Later she married Constantius. She was the mother of Valentian III and regent during his childhood.

Galla Placidia was the daughter of Roman Emperor Theodosius the Great, who was the last Emperor to rule the Western and Eastern Roman Empires simultaneously. She received an advanced education. However, her noble origins didn’t protect her from turmoil.

While in Rome, she was kidnapped by Visigothic King Alaric as his invaders sacked the city. However, she later married the invader’s King Athaulf. King Athaulf was soon murdered after they married.

Galla Placidia then married Emperor Constantius III. The couple had two children: Justa Grata Honoria and Valentinian III. Constantius III soon died, and her young son, Valentinian, was appointed Caesar.

Galla Placidia found herself regent of the Western Roman Empire for her young son – Emperor Valentinian III. As regent, Galla Placidia headed many building projects in Rome, Jerusalem, and Ravenna. One of those building projects was her own so-called mausoleum.

Neon of Ravenna

Bishop Ursus of Ravenna from 449 until 452. Namesake of Neonian Baptistry.

Odoacer (who deposed the last Western emperor)

The date of the fall of Rome is subjective. Some suggest the year 324, when the Emperor Constantine moved the capital from Rome in the west to the ancient city of Byzantium (renamed Constantinople in 330) in the east. Others suggest the year 380, when Theodosius permanently split the administration of the Roman Empire between his two sons, Arcadius in the eastern half of the empire and Honorius in the west. Most suggest the 476, when the last Western Roman Emperor, the child emperor Romulus Augustulus, was overthrown by Odoacer the Ostrogoth (Ostrogoths were a Germanic tribe).

About 470 Odoacer entered Italy with the Sciri (a Germanic people); he joined the Roman army and rose to a position of command. By 475, Julius Nepos was emperor of the Western Roman Empire in Rome, and Zeno was the emperor of the Eastern Roman Empire in Constantinople. Odoacer had become an officer in what remained of the Roman Army. He commanded significant contingents of Germanic peoples made up mostly of Rugii and Heruli tribesmen (also Germanic tribes). The leader of the Roman military, Orestes, was seeking to have his son, Romulus Augustulus, recognized as Western Emperor in place of Emperor Julius Nepos. Orestes promised land in Italy for Odoacer's troops. In return, Odoacer was to remain neutral in the attack on Nepos by Orestes. By the end of October, 475, Orestes had rebelled and driven Nepos from Italy. Orestes then proclaimed his young son the new emperor as Romulus Augustus, called "Augustulus". But Orestes reneged on his promise to Odoacer of land, and in 476 Odoacer executed Orestes and put the eleven-year-old emperor Romulus Augustulus in internal exile. Odoacer then paid nominal allegiance to Nepos, who reorganized his court in Salona (in present day Croatia), while Odoacer effectively operating autonomously in the West, having been raised to the rank of patrician (ruler of the West Roman Empire). Odoacer retained the Roman administrative system, cooperated actively with the Roman Senate, and his rule was efficient and successful. He evicted the Vandals (another Germanic tribe) from Sicily in 477, and in 480 he occupied Dalmatia after the murder of Julius Nepos.

A coin of Odoacer that was minted in Ravenna in 477 is shown in the picture.

Coin of Odoacer depicted with
a "barbarian" mustache

Odoacer was an Arian Christian, but he did not have conflict with the Trinitarian state church of the Roman Empire.

Theodoric the Great

Meanwhile, Theodoric invaded Italy in 489 and by August 490 had captured almost the entire peninsula, forcing Odoacer to take refuge in Ravenna. The city surrendered on 5 March 493. Theodoric invited Odoacer to a banquet of reconciliation, where instead of forging an alliance, Theodoric killed the unsuspecting king.

Under Theodoric, its first king, the Ostrogothic kingdom reached its zenith, stretching from what is now southern France in the west to what is now western Serbia in the southeast. Most of the social institutions of the late Western Roman Empire were preserved during his rule. Theodoric called himself Gothorum Romanorumque rex ("King of the Goths and Romans"), demonstrating his desire to be a leader for both peoples. His reign lasted until his death in 526.

Justinian the Great

Justinian I was born in 482 and was the Eastern Roman Emperor from 527 to 565. He wanted to reunite the eastern and western halves of the empire. His general, Belisarius, swiftly conquered the Vandal Kingdom in North Africa. Subsequently, Belisarius, Narses, and other generals conquered the Ostrogothic kingdom, restoring Dalmatia, Sicily, Italy, and Rome to the empire after more than half a century of rule by the Ostrogoths. The chief minister, Liberius, reclaimed the south of the Iberian Peninsula, establishing the province of Spania. In 540, Belisarius reached the Ostrogothic capital Ravenna. There he was offered the title of Western Roman Emperor by the Ostrogoths at the same time that envoys of Justinian were arriving to negotiate a peace that would leave the region north of the Po River in Gothic hands. Belisarius feigned acceptance of the offer, entered the city in May 540, and reclaimed it for the Empire.

The octagonal plan references earlier churches and symbolizes regeneration. The eight sides were understood to be symbolic of regeneration—referencing Christ’s resurrection eight days after Palm Sunday

Dante Alighei

Tomb of Dante

Dante Alighieri is the father of the Italian language, and is comparable to Shakespeare for the English language. Dante died in 1321, and his tomb was supposedly a simple sarcophagus just outside the Church of San Francesco, not far from where he lived the last years.

But Florence was the place of Dante's birth, and so the Florentines had a claim on his remains too. But Florence sent him into exile. It seems that Dante got mixed up in polytics of Florence at the time, and when Dante went as part of a delegation to Rome to visit the Pope, he was not allowed to return. While he was away, Charles of Valois (the brother of King Philip IV of France) entered Florence with the Black Guelphs (a party that Dante did not belong to), who in the next six days destroyed much of the city and killed many of their enemies. The Black Guelphs then ruled the city, and Dante, a White Guelph, was condemned to exile for two years and ordered to pay a large fine. Dante did not pay the fine, in part because he believed he was not guilty and in part because all his assets in Florence had been seized by the Black Guelphs. He was condemned to perpetual exile; if he had returned to Florence without paying the fine, he could have been burned at the stake.

A couple of centuries later, Dante had become famous, and the Medici of Florence wanted to be associeated with him. The Medici wanted to put Dante’s bones in a monument designed by Michelangelo inside the Church of Santa Maria Novella. And in 1519, the Medici almost obtained Dante’s remains through their kinship with Pope Leo X. But in the meantime, the Franciscan friars in Ravenna hid the box of bones in a wall of the Quadrarco of Braccioforte cloister. Ravenna held the bones, and the current mausoleum was built between 1780 and 1782. It was ordered by Cardinal Luigi Valenti Gonzaga (1725 – 1808) and designed by the Ravenna architect Camillo Morigia (1743-1795). But the friars almost lost the bones in 1810, when Napoleon ordered the confiscation of monastic property and the friars were forced to leave. Before leaving, the friars hid the chest with the bones again. By the time the location of the bones could be revealed, nobody was left who knew wehre they were. Then, on May 25th 1865, during some maintenance works at the monastery beside the tomb, a bricklayer accidentally found a wooden chest in a wall of the Quadrarco di Braccioforte. Luckily, a young student, Anastasio Matteuggi, saved the box from destruction. When the World Wars broke out, however, the box was moved again, and placed in safety under a mound of earth that can still be seen today when entering the area of the Quadrarco di Braccioforte. Since December 1945 Dante has returned to the mausoleum.

The last three years of his life were spent in Ravenna as the guest of its prince. He was a third order Franciscan, which is why he was buried in a Franciscan church and wearing a Franciscan habit.

Ravenna has eight UNESCO World Heritage Sites (WHS):
3 churches: Sant'Apollinare Nuovo (Arian basilica), San Vitale (octagon), Sant'Apollinare in Classe (basilica)
2 baptistries: Neonian Baptistry (old octagon), Arian Baptistry (octagon)
2 chapels: Mausoleum of Galla Placidia (oldest Greek cross), Archiepiscopal Chapel (orthodox Greek cross),
1 tower: Theodoric's Mausoleum (no mosaics)

Domus dei Tappeti di Pietra museum

This "House of the Carpets of Stone" contains more ancient mosaics.

Mausoleum of Galla Placidia

The so-called Mausoleum of Galla Placidia is the oldest of the WHS, built between 425 and 450. It might not have been a mausoleum originally; she died and was buried in Rome. It is cross-shaped, a common shape in early Christian architecture. It is not at all certain that either of the sarcophagi still kept within it (shown below) was originally hers. One of the most interesting signs of the shift from Roman paganism to Christianity is the lack of external decoration, and the focus on the interior. Conversely, pagan religious structures were often very beautifully decorated on the outside, but had a very plain interior.

Christian decoration on inside of sarcophagus

Plain exterior, typical of Christian sarophagi

The ancient Romans generally preferred mosaics with blue backgrounds representing the sky, where the later Byzantine tradition preferred gold backgrounds, representing heaven. So the central dome, with a Cross and the symbols of the four Evangelists at the corners is a mix of Christian and pagan imagery.

The depiction of Jesus as the good shepherd comes from the Gospel of John, written around the turn of the second century. By the first half of the fifth century, the iconography of the Good Shepherd largely disappears from Eastern and Western Christian art, reappearing in the Middle Ages.

Christ, in a “gold tunic, sewn with blue bands, and with a purple mantle draped over one shoulder,”10 becomes a king or emperor rather than a mere shepherd.

the building was built on top of an abandoned Roman domus. The mosaic decorations are enhanced by the golden light that pours through the tiny alabaster windows. There are picture from both the Hellenistic-Roman tradition and the Christian one, the grounds themes like victory over death and eternal life. At the center of the dome, an immense starred sky, a golden Latin cross, symbolizing Christ the rising sun, is surrounded and celebrated by the four Beings of Apocalypse.

The half-moon–shaped architectural space, lunettes, depict the apostles, framed by doves, gushes of water, symbolizing the Grace drawing from the Divine font. In the lunettes to the East and to the West, a few deer drink from the sacred baptismal font, all surrounded by a celestial garden. In the lunette overlooking the entrance, on the other hand, near a gridiron in flames is St. Lawrence, who was burned on a gridiron, but did not die from it. (Or possibly picture of the Spanish Saint, Vincent of Saragossa. St. Vincent was martyred by drowning at sea, and Galla and her children had been delivered from shipwreck. The picture seems to be an illustration of the poem about St. Vincent, who is ordered to disclose his sacred books to be burned. This explains the cupboard containing the Gospels on the left, which has no satisfactory explanation in the story of St. Lawrence.)

Over the entrance is the lunette with the most detailed mosaic. It shows Christ the Good Shepherd amidst his sheep.

in reference to the first words of Psalm 41, “As the hart panteth after the fountains of water; so my soul panteth after thee, O God”; vines, referring to Christ’s words “ I am the vine, you are the branches”, with two Apostles in their midst

+; at the center of the arches, the XP monogram (first letters in the Greek word for Christ), decorated with the Greek letters alpha and omega, from Apocalypse 1, 8

Chi-Rho monogram

+On each of the walls of the crossing beneath the cupola, two Apostles are represented, with a vessel and two doves between them. These two are Peter and Paul; the others have no distinctive attributes by which they can be specifically identified. The eight here and the four amid the vines in the transepts make a total of twelve.
+

Peter (right) and Paul (left)

Neonian Baptistry

The baptistery probably dates back to the beginning of the 5th century and was built at the behest of Bishop Ursus, when Ravenna became capital of the Western Roman Empire. Just a few decades after its construction, bishop Neon (450 – 475 AD) ordered a series of restoration works, including the cupola and the inner decorations that we see today.

The octagonal building is dedicated to St. Neon, Bishop of Ravenna (see above). The baptistry is octagonal, which was a traditional Roman architectural style that carried over into early Christian buildings. Many baptistries for many centuries were octagonal-shaped. Bishop Neon transformed and redecorated it

Inside, two orders of arcades run along the walls, and a threefold decoration embellish the room – marbles in the lower part, stuccoes in the middle, and mosaics with a clear Greek-Roman influence in the higher part.

At the ground level, there are arches on all eight sides supported by eight columns. The arches are decorated with mosaics of acanthus scrolls. Inside the scrolls are eight medallions above the columns with a male figure inside. The figures are wearing tunics and the two depicted here – see the image below – are carrying a book and a scroll. The men’s faces are not identical; some have beards, while others have no facial hair at all. Unlike the apostles of the ceiling mosaics (see below), the figures are not labelled, so we do not know who they are. Interestingly, the Baptistery has four small apsides, all of which have texts related to the practice of baptism. To either side of the windows were panels in painted stucco of the four major and twelve minor prophets, which were mistakenly thought to be later additions, and also removed in the early 20th century. When it was realized that this was in fact a mistake, they were replaced with copies.

We move up one level and arrive at the window zone. Between the large windows, we find stucco reliefs of male figures. Again, they are interpreted as prophets. Because there are sixteen of them, it is fair to assume they are the “sixteen prophets” from the Old Testament, that is: Isaiah, Jeremiah, Ezekiel, Daniel, Hosea, Joel, Amos, Obadiah, Jonah, Micah, Nahum, Habakkuk, Zephaniah, Haggai, Zechariah and Malachi. The figures are carrying books and scrolls, either opened or closed. All of them are clean-shaven. Originally they would have been painted in bright colours, except for their tunics, which were probably as white as they are now.

The outer zone, which is still part of the base, has mosaics of the four Gospels, interspersed with images of four empty thrones with a garment and a cross. The empty thrones likely refer to Christ’s Second Coming. The Four Gospels, on the other hand, are easily identified because there are texts like EVANGELIVM SECVN MARCUM on the pages of the four books.

Then we get to the middle zone, which is where the dome begins. It has mosaics portraying the twelve apostles, each of whom is dressed as a Roman senator, and holding a crown. All are labelled and can thus also be identified easily. Their garments are either white and gold (white tunic, gold mantle) or gold and white. The apostles are carrying crowns and they all have different faces. Peter and Paul look familiar as ever: Peter has short grey hair and a cropped grey beard, while Paul has a high forehead and is balding. The apostle of the Jews and the self-declared apostle of the Gentiles (Romans 11:13) are each leading five apostles in a procession that starts above the central medallion and end just below it.

The depiction of Jesus being baptized in the river Jordan decorates the dome. Among the waves of the river Jordan, represented in the wonderful mosaic of the dome by an old man pouring water and holding out a green cloth, we can admire a naked and exceptionally beautiful Jesus. The transparency effect of the water, obtained by a superb mosaic technique, is truly extraordinary. In a sinuous pose, without other cloth to veil him from sight, the Saviour’s chest appears wet and shiny thanks to the water effect, and as if it were sculpted. Upon him descends the white dove of the Holy Spirit, while on the left, with one foot raised on the rock, John the Baptist baptizes him.

On the left, we see John the Baptist in clothes made of camel hair. He has a halo and is holding a large jewelled staff with a cross. John is in the process of baptising Christ in the river Jordan. A young, bearded and haloed Christ is immersed in the river up to his waist, with the dove of the Holy Spirit above him. On the right is a personification of the river Jordan, labelled as such. We have seen personifications of the island of Crete and of King Minos’ labyrinth in the famous Paphos mosaics on Cyprus (second or third century), and these personifications were very common in Greco-Roman art. Although of pagan origin, such personifications were often copied by early Christians and thus a personified river Jordan is not out of place in a fifth century Christian baptistery. In this case, the bearded Jordan is holding a green mantle to clothe Christ after his baptism. Christ is, of course, naked, and the mosaicist chose to include even the ‘tiny details’.

The dome was restored by Felice Kibel (1814-1872), a Roman artist who was active in Ravenna from the 1850s until his death. John’s jeweled cross may actually have been a shepherd’s staff (it is in the Arian Baptistery in Ravenna), and it is quite possible that Christ was beardless in the original mosaic (again, he is in the Arian Baptistery). John’s hand has also been restored and it is plausible that he had his hand on Christ’s head in the fifth century mosaic (once again, he has in the Arian Baptistery…). That would make the bowl that we see now a product of Kibel’s fantasy.

Arian Baptistery

Theodoric ruled from Ravenna from 493 until 426, and he had four of the WHS built. Theodoric was Arian (a follower of Arius, who lived from 256 until 336). The Ostrogoths built there own cathedral and attached the baptistery to it. It also has a depiction of Jesus being baptized in the river Jordan.

It was presumably built by king Theodoric at the end of the 5th century AD, when Arianism was the court’s official religion. Fourteen years after Theodoric's death, in 526, Ravenna was retaken by the Byzantines under the Emperor Justinian, whose policy was to take over Arian buildings and convert them to orthodox Catholic worship. Under the archbishop of Ravenna St Agnellus (556-69), the Arian baptistery was converted into an oratory dedicated to the Virgin Mary.

The original floor is ten feet under the floor of today's floor, where a system of waterways controls and prevents floodings. Today, it is possible to see just small rebuilt sections of the original ambulatory (annular corridor), which recall its connection with the ancient Arian Cathedral, today Chiesa di Santo Spirito (Church of the Holy Spirit).

spread across the entire area of the cupola is the famous mosaic of the Baptism of Christ, immersed in the water of the River Jordan and flanked by St. John the Baptist and an old man, a personification of the river itself. The baptism shows Jesus nude and entirely human.

The external concentric band depicts the twelve apostles divided into two groups walking towards a majestic gemmed throne crested by a cross. A purple coat hangs from the cross’ arms, symbol of human royalty and the human suffering of Christ as a man.

Sant' Apollinare Nuovo

The Ostrogoths greatest church was built next to Theodoric's palace (which has disappeared in the intervening centuries). The church is a long basilica with mosaic decorations in three tiers along its walls. Some of the mosaics are still original, but some were replaced by Emperor Justinian the Great (an orthodox Catholic) after he reconquered Italy in 540.

The basilica shows the evolution of the Byzantine mosaic — from Theodoric’s to Justinian’s age.

The 26 Christian scenes, dating back to Theodoric, are the largest monumental cycle of the New Testament and, among those made of mosaic, are the oldest ones to date

Mosaic of Palace of Theoderic. After his death, images that depicted him and other people were removed from the mosaic and covered with other images. Of the original figures, the hands still remain on the columns of the palace.

The interior is 35 metres long and 21 metres wide and consists of a raised central nave and two lower side aisles , each separated by a row of columns. The columns are made of marble imported from Constantinople and have a lyre or leather leaf capital . This is a simple form of the Corinthian capital : the acanthus leaves are less elaborate and have a coarse ornamentation. The columns are connected by arches that are coffered. Above them is the central nave wall, which has a richly decorated mosaic field. Before the 16th century, there was another 1.5 metre wide strip of wall between the arcade zone and the mosaic.

The portrait of Classe, a masterpiece within a masterpiece

An unusual feature of the very rich mosaic decoration along the basilica’s central nave, inserted amidst the solemn figures, is a realistic view of the ancient city of Classe, the suburb outside Ravenna where the port was. The city is depicted with golden brick walls, beyond which it is possible to see monumental buildings with a circular plan and porticoes. Behind the columns that enclose the port there are three vessels floating in the sea, the last of which is plain sailing.

Next to it, suspended over a flowery meadow, a procession of virgins cover the entire wall. Each woman is strikingly different from the others, and all of them are moving.

Following the gaze of the procession, our eyes find the famous Three Wise Men. In their precious colored robes, they bear gifts to Our Lady, Mother of God.

If, on the one hand, the city enjoys a realistic atmosphere, in perfect Hellenistic-Roman style; on the other hand, the procession of Virgins and the Three Kings suggest a solemn and hieratic vision of the Church.

The figures, placed on a golden background, thus become almost abstract to symbolize spirituality.

Similarly, the other nave is decorated with a realistic representation of Theodoric’s Palace in Ravenna, with its furnishings, columns and what remains of human figures (mainly the hands) of court dignitaries, who were later erased in the Byzantine era.

Next to the palace, there is a procession of martyrs in their white garments, including the Saints Lawrence and Martin of Tours.

The procession ends with the homage to Saviour Christ enthroned, surrounded by angels.

Also in this case, there is a realistic touch in the reference to the city and the image of Theodoric’s Palace. The Ostrogothic king Theodoric is depicted in a mosaic, in his imperial robes, so much so that in the 19th century it was believed to be a portrayal of Justinian.

Mosaic of Justinian, possibly a modified portrait of Theoderic

Three Wise Men or Magi wearing trousers and Phrygian caps as a sign of their Oriental origin

The clerestory consists of eleven windows, the spaces between which are decorated with further mosaics . The current coffered ceiling dates from the 16th century . It replaces the original ceiling, which was called "St. Martin in the Golden Sky" because of its magnificent mosaics . The apse was renovated in 1950. It was most likely decorated with mosaics that were destroyed in an earthquake in the 7th century . The interior was once completely decorated with mosaics . Today only the mosaics in the nave remain. They date mainly from the time of Theodoric . On the southern wall of the nave there is a procession of 26 male saints , led by St. Martin.

The haloed saints wear simple white tunics, although St. Martin wears a purple robe and St. Lawrence was given a gold robe because he was greatly venerated in Ravenna . In their veiled hands the martyrs carry wreaths and the martyr's palm, which the inscription above their heads identifies them. They process from the west - a palace - to the east, towards the enthroned Christ, flanked by two angels. On the opposite wall is depicted a procession of 22 virgin martyrs moving from classe to the enthroned Virgin and Child flanked by four angels. The virgins wear gold-embroidered tunics and white veils, and like the male martyrs, they carry the victor's wreath in their veiled hand. At the head of the holy virgins are the Magi .

In the clerestory, between the windows, 32 depictions of apostles and prophets can be seen. Above them, in rectangular fields, there are alternating depictions of miracles and the Passion of Christ, as well as baldachins. The depictions are not arranged according to the chronology of the Bible, but according to the liturgical reading order. Since the restoration in 1860, Christ has carried a sceptre. Originally he held an open book with the inscription 'Ego sum rex gloriae' ("I am the King of Glory"). Also worthy of note are the mosaics near the entrance to the church, which show Theodoric's palace and the city's port , Classis. After the conquest of Ravenna by Eastern Roman troops in 540, the depictions of Theodoric and his courtiers were removed and replaced with images of curtains; on closer inspection, however, the hands of the figures once depicted can still be seen in several places.

Archiepiscopal Chapel

Even while Theodoric the Great ruled Italy, the orthodox Catholics continued to build in Ravenna. The bishops built for there private use the Archiepiscopal Chapel. It is now part of the Archiepiscopal museum. It is cross-shaped, like the Mausoleum of Galla Placidia.

the chapel was built by Peter II shortly after he became archbishop in 495. The mosaics date from the original construction, or soon after. A lunette over the vestibule door shows a beardless Christ treading on the beasts, and dressed as a general or victorious Emperor. The lower parts of the walls are lined with marble slabs, while the rest of the interior used to be covered with rich, tapestry-like mosaics, as the vault still is. Some parts of these survive, while others were substituted with tempera paintings

The iconography of the mosaic decoration aims at glorifying the figure of Christ from a clearly anti-Arian point of view. The representation of Christ as a warrior, his monogram and his face as well as the images of Martyrs, Apostles and Evangelists frequently appear in a dominant position in various places of the chapel, thus underlining the concept of the glorification of Jesus and reaffirming the principles of Catholic orthodoxy

This image placed inside and above the door (heavily restored) is generally understood as a profession of the orthodox Nicene faith held by the bishops of Ravenna. Christ wears the clothing of a soldier, and carries a cross on His shoulder. The Gospel book in His hands has the words of John 14, 6, “I am the way, the truth and the life.” The lion and serpent on which He treads, in reference to the words of Psalm 90, 13, “thou shalt trample under foot the lion and the dragon”, appear as symbols of the Arian heresy. The same iconography occurs in another of the Christian monuments of Ravenna, known as the orthodox (i.e. non-Arian) baptistery.

The little oratory is dedicated to the Saviour, and the whole decoration system glorifies its image, coherent with an anti-Arian interpretation. Christ, dressed as a warrior, with a cross on his shoulder, his monogram and his face, stand out in various parts of the chapel. The images of martyrs, apostles and evangelists also contribute to underline this attempt of glorification, as to claim the Catholic orthodoxy’s supremacy. In the Archiepiscopal also stands out the Latin inscription in the vestibule “Either light was born here or it was made captive, [either way] here it reigns freely” (“Aut lux hic nata est aut capta hic libera regnat”). This inscription as well, reflecting in the radiance of the chapel’s mosaic, refers most probably to the Orthodox light, in sharp contrast with Arianism.

Following an older convention, which at the end of the 5th century had already become rare in the most important center of western Christianity, Rome, Christ is shown young and beardless, to indicate that he is a different person from God the Father. (The heresy that God the Son IS God the Father under a different guise, known as “Patripassianism”, was the great scare-heresy of the pre-Nicene period, and Arianism, which made the Son a creation of the Father, was the over-reaction to it.) He wears the purple of the Roman Emperors, and has a decorated halo, as signs of His divinity. To the right are the Apostles Peter, Andrew, and Philip; to the left, Paul, James and John

The ivory throne of Maximian

Portrait of Maximian from the mosaic in the Basilica of San Vitale

Rebuilt in modern times, the Archiepiscopal Palace of Ravenna hosts a small and precious museum.

While the first room of the museum is entirely occupied by a rich collection of marbles from the ancient Basilica Ursiana, the visitor’s attention is drawn to the world-famous ivory throne of Archbishop Maximian, displayed in the next room in a glass case.

The throne consists of an ebony frame on which 27 ivory panels (which must have been 39 originally) were applied by at least four different artists. They are finely carved with plant-like decorations, depicting scenes inspired by the Old and New Testaments.

We do not know exactly where the throne was made. The throne can be dated to about 545–553. There has long been scholarly debate over whether it was made in Constantinople or Alexandria. Nor do we do not know exactly where the throne was originally placed, but for a period of time it was certainly located in the space annexed to the choir of the ancient cathedral before it was removed in 1773 to make room for the sacristy.

In the center, in the front part, the throne is engraved with the monogram of Maximian, Prelate of Ravenna (546-556) in the age of Justinian. The back of the throne shows scenes of the Life of Christ, the sides include scenes of the Story of Joseph from the Book of Genesis, and on the front of the throne are the Four evangelists around John the Baptist, who is holding a medallion with the Lamb of God and Maximian's name above him. Joseph, who rose to be minister to his pharaoh, as a symbol for the role a bishop, which at this period typically involved a considerable role in civil government.

Theodoric's Mausoleum

The Mausoleum is a domed rotunda, a traditional Roman architecture that carried over into early Christian buildings. It has no mosaics, but it has

The mausoleum of Theodoric was constructed sometime before his death in 526, outside the walls of Ravenna, in accordance with the ancient Roman custom by which burials were not permitted within a city. In the mid-9th century, a chronicler named Andreas Agnellus noted that it had been converted into a church with the name “Sancta Maria ad Farum – St Mary near the Lighthouse” of the nearby port, but it is now a museum, and retains almost no decoration.

Unlike the majority of contemporary mausolea, which are made out of brick, Theodoric’s is made from large blocks of limestone, quarried in Istria on the other side of the Adriatic sea, in what is now Croatia. The external arrangement of both stories is a decagon; on the inside, the lower story is cruciform, and the upper circular. The roof is single massive piece, also of Istrian limestone, over 35 feet wide, over 10 feet high, and weighing an astonishing 230 tons.

The remains of Theoderic’s sarcophagus (or, more likely, an ancient Roman bathtub), made out of an Egyptian stone called porphyry, from the Greek work for purple, much prized by the Romans, since it was the color of royalty. It is very heavy, and therefore difficult and expensive to transport; it is also extremely hard, and difficult (not, obviously, impossible) to break. Medieval artists knew how to break it into pieces, and often used it for floor tiles, but it was not until the early 16th century that artists rediscovered how to carve it, which requires first tempering it with acid. His remains were removed during Byzantine rule, when the mausoleum was turned into a Christian oratory.

It is the only surviving example of a tomb of a king from this period

San Vitale

The church of San Vitale is the highlight of the visit to Ravenna. It was begun in 526 by Bishop Ecclesius. It was finished in 547 by Bishop Maximian. This time span occurred

It is also octagonal, with an apse and semi-dome. The mosaics in the semi-dome show Jesus, two angels, St. Vitalis, and Bishop Ecclesius (who founded the church). On the side walls are two groups of portraits showing Emperor Justinian and Archbishop Maximian on one wall and Empress Theodora on the other.

It is called a basilica, although it is certainly not in the basilica style, which is a large rectangular space reminiscent of Roman basilicas.

In the main apse, a young and beardless Christ is accompanied by two angels, and on the left, St Vitalis, on the right, bishop Ecclesius, who offers the church to Christ. The naturalistic representation of the ground, with greenery, rocks and flowers, is typical of the older tradition of Roman mosaics. The gold background represents heaven, and gives the viewer the sense of looking into the sacred place where Christ dwells with his Saints. This is more in keeping with the then-emergent conventions of Byzantine art.

St Vitalis receives the crown of martyrdom; notice how he covers his hands with a veil to receive the sacred object.

At far left is Vitale, at far right Bishop Ecclesius (522–532)
is portrayed presenting Christ with a model of the church

Beneath St Vitalis is this famous representation of the Emperor Justinian with the members and a group of soldiers; his preeminence in the group is indicated not only by his clothing, but also by the fact that he is stepping on the foot of the man closest to him. On the right are the bishop who dedicated the church, Maximian, a deacon holding a Gospel book, and a subdeacon holding an incense burner

*On the opposite side, Justinian’s wife, the Empress Theodora, stands amid a court of noblewomen.

*On the left side of the sanctuary, the mosaic under the arch represents (left and center) the Biblical episodes of the Hospitality of Abraham (Genesis 18, 1-10), in which the three men who come to Abraham and Sarah are also referred to as “the Lord” in the singular, and were thus of course understood as an appearance of the Holy Trinity.

In the right side is the Sacrifice of Isaac (Genesis 22, 1-18.) Outside the arch on the left are the prophet Jeremiah; in the middle, angels holding a shield with the Cross in it; on the right; Moses receives the Law on Mt Sinai as the people look on from below

Sacrifice of Isaac

On the right wall, the sacrifices of Abel and Melchizedek; the pairing of these with Abraham’s sacrifice of Isaac on the opposite wall is one of the earliest artistic representations of the words of the Supra quae propitio of the Roman Canon, “Upon which do Thou vouchsafe to look with favorable and gracious countenance, and accept them, as Thou didst vouchsafe to accept the gifts of Thy just servant Abel, and the sacrifice of our Patriarch Abraham, and that which Thy high priest Melchizedek offered unto Thee, a holy Sacrifice, an unspotted Victim.” Above the arch, we see the same motif of the angels bearing the Cross within a shield.

The sacrifices of Abel and Melchizedek

Outside the arch on the right, the prophet Isaiah, with the Evangelist Mark above him; on the left, Moses shepherds the flocks of his father-in-law Jethro, and has the vision of the Burning Bush (Exodus 3, 1-15); the Evangelist Matthew is above him.

The mosaic of the sanctuary’s ceiling, with the Lamb of God in the center, supported by angels on all four sides; in the arch at the edge, Christ and the Twelve Apostles

Sant' Apollinare in Classe

The basilica is about five miles south of the old town, near the old port of Classe. At the east end of the basilica is the apse with decorations of pastoral scenes. This basilica and Sant' Apollinare Nuovo are designed after the first church built by the first Christian emperor, Constantine the Great, in Rome.

The mosaic in the apse of the church is one of the best preserved examples of early Byzantine work in Italy, dating to the mid-6th century. St Apollinaris is represented in the lower middle, wearing a stole and with his hands raised in prayer. At the very top, Christ Himself is shown, as he is in many early Christian images, with six sheep to either side of Him, emerging from the holy cities of Bethlehem and Jerusalem. These represent the twelve Apostles, of course, and the representation of Apollinaris in similar company is probably intended to remind the viewer of his close connection to the Apostolic era, and therefore also of the antiquity of the see of Ravenna.

St Apollinaris in the lower middle

The face of Christ is placed at the center of the Cross, with Moses and Elijah to either side; the three sheep (two to the right, one to the left) represent the Apostles Peter, James and John. This is therefore a symbolic representation of the Transfiguration, the moment at which Christ revealed His Divinity to His Apostles for the first time, foreshadowing the glory of His Resurrection, which can only come through the suffering of the Cross.

Below the apse to the right, this image of the sacrifices of Abel, Melchisedek and Abraham was added in the mid-7th century; this motif is taken from the Basilica of St Vitalis in Ravenna itself.

On the opposite side, the Emperor Constantine IV (652-85) is shown granting the privileges of an Imperial envoy to the archbishop of Ravenna. The golden halo originally meant simply that the figure wearing it was important, without reference to holiness, and was still used in this way at the time the mosaic was made.

Between the windows below the apse are represented four archbishop of Ravenna: St Ecclesius, St Severus, St Ursus, whose name means ‘bear’, and St Ursicinus, whose name means ‘little bear’

Mosaic of Saint Ursus (bishop 399–426)

To the left of the apse, the archangel Michael

The Basilica of St Francis in Ravenna, and the Tomb of Dante

The church was built over the course of the 9th and 10th centuries, giving us the basic form of both the building and belltower as we have them to day; it was subsequently rededicated to St Francis after the friars of his order took it over in 1261. Like all of the older buildings of Ravenna, it has subsided considerably, and one of the photos below shows a rather surprising result of this. The complex also includes the tomb of the great Italian poet Dante Alighieri, who died in Ravenna in 1321, making this the 7th centenary year of his death. (Photos by Nicola de’ Grandi.)

The brick façade is punctuated by several holes, regularly distributed; this multiplicity of minor stress points helps to diffuse the force of its weight, so that it doesn’t crush itself, a technique copied from the ancient Romans.

In many Romanesque churches, especially in northern Italy, the sanctuary is elevated above the level of the pavement of the nave, and has a crypt underneath it, which in this case, is entered through the arch beneath the altar.

/ The altar is made out of a sarcophagus believed to be of the 5th century.

The subsiding of the building has now brought the crypt down below the level of the water-table, and it is therefore always full of water, although the level varies depending on the season and the rain-fall. Some remains of the mosaic from the original 5th century basilica are preserved within it, and, as you can see below, the friars keep goldfish in the water.